The Historical Jesus (Part 2)

In Part 1 of the historical Jesus, we considered sources from Tacitus, Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Lucian of Samosata, Mara Bar Serapion, Celsus and The Talmud. All of these independent sources confirm the life and death of Jesus, as well as some possible proof of a resurrection. In part 2 we will look at further sources referring to the historical Jesus and the early Christian movement, before summarising the information we can gather about Jesus, from these independent sources.

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (69 A.D. – 122 A.D.)

Another Roman historian who also makes one reference to Jesus and one to Christians is Gaius Suetonius Tranquillas. Suetonius was the chief secretary of Emperor Hadrian (117–138 A.D.), so also had access to the imperial records.

The first reference occurs in the section on Emperor Claudius (41–54 A.D.), and the second reference from Suetonius is about the Christians who were tortured by Emperor Nero. Here’s what Suetonius had to say:

“Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [Claudius] expelled them from the city”.

Regarding Christians:

“After the great fire at Rome punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief”.

This passage confirms:

Jesus existed;

The Jews were expelled from Rome;

Jesus was the instigator of their rebellion

The term “Christians”, to identify followers of Christ;

That Christians were persecuted; and

They were persecuted for their religious beliefs

Sceptic viewpoint and counter argument:

The spelling of Christ has been questioned, and some have claimed that this passage was referring to another civil agitator. However, the translator notes that “Chrestus” is a variant spelling of “Christ”, which early Christians also used and is virtually the same as Tacitus’ Latin spelling “Christus”. Suetonius also refers to a wave of riots which broke out in a large Jewish community in Rome during the year 49 A.D., which consequently led to the Jews being banished from the city. Interestingly this statement corroborates with the record in Acts 18:2, which tells us that Paul met a Jewish couple from Pontus named Aquila and his wife Priscilla, who had recently left Italy because Claudius had demanded that all Jews leave Rome.

Toledoth Jesu

This anti-Christian document not only refers to Jesus but gives an interesting account of what happened to Jesus’ body after his death. It tells us of the disciple’s plan to steal his body:

“A gardener named Juda discovered their plans and dug a new grave in his garden. Then he removed Jesus’ body from Joseph’s tomb and placed it in his own newly dug grave. The disciples came to the original tomb, found Jesus’ body gone and proclaimed him risen. The Jewish leaders also proceeded to Joseph’s tomb and found it empty. Juda then took them to his grave and dug up the body of Jesus. The Jewish leaders were greatly relieved and wanted to take the body. Juda replied that he would sell them the body of Jesus and did so for thirty pieces of silver. The Jewish priests then dragged Jesus’ body through the streets of Jerusalem”

This passage confirms:

Jesus existed;

That Jesus’ tomb was found empty; and

The common narrative of the disciple’s plan to steal the body

Sceptic argument and counter argument:

There is a question on the reliability of the Toledoth Jesu, as it was not compiled until the fifth century A.D., although it does reflect early Jewish tradition. The teaching that the disciples were the ones who removed the dead body of Jesus persisted in the early centuries after Jesus’ death. As reported in Matthew 28:11-15, this saying was still popular when the Gospel was written, probably between 70–85 A.D. Additionally, Justin Martyr, writing about 150 A.D., states that the Jewish leaders had even sent specially trained men around the Mediterranean, even to Rome, to further this teaching, which is confirmed by Tertullian about 200 A.D. In other words, even if the Toledoth Jesu itself is too late or untrustworthy a source, the idea that the tomb was empty because the body was moved or stolen was common in early church history, as witnessed by other sources.

Phlegon Van Tralles (80 - 140 A.D.) and Thallus (52 A.D.)

At the time of Jesus’ death, according to the Gospel records, there was a darkness that covered the land, as well as an earthquake. Phlegon, a 1st and 2nd Century Secular Historian, makes mention of a similar darkness and dismisses it as a solar eclipse. He also refers to an earthquake that happened during this period. Phlegon’s work is quoted by Julius Africanus, Eusebius and Origen. The following passage is found in an early fragment referring to Phlegon’s work ‘The Olympiades’:

Eusebius quotes:

“In the 4th year of the 202nd Olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the Sun, greater than had ever been known before, for at the sixth hour the day was changed into night, and the stars were seen in the heavens. An earthquake occurred in Bythinia and overthrew a great part of the city of Nicaea.”

Africanus quotes:

“In the time of Tiberius Caesar at the full moon there was an eclipse of the sun from the 6th hour to the 9th, manifestly that one of which we speak”.

Origen quotes:

“And with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place … ”

These passages confirm:

There was an eclipse during the reign of Tiberius;

This eclipse started at the sixth hour;

There was also an earthquake;

This eclipse lasted three hours; and

Jesus existed and was crucified

Sceptical Argument and Counter Argument:

There is a question on whether Phlegon’s fragment quoted by Eusebius was referring to the event that was recorded in the Gospels. The Gospel records tell us that on the day of the crucifixion the sun was darkened for three hours, and there was a great earthquake. From Phlegon’s statement it is possible to work out that this darkness occurred around the same time as the crucifixion. In ancient Greece the Olympic Games were held in the July of the first year of each Olympiad, which was a 4-year period running from July to June of each succeeding year. The 202nd Olympiad has been calculated to run from July 29 A.D. to June 33 A.D. We are told that this eclipse and earthquake happened in the fourth 4th year of the 202nd Olympiad, and it is believed that Jesus was crucified in the Spring of 33 A.D., at the time of the Passover. So, unless by some massive coincidence there was another unexpected eclipse and earthquake at this time and location, the timing of this event recorded by Phlegon and the records we have from the Gospels seem to corroborate with one another.

Thallus

This event was also mentioned in an ancient history composed Circa 52 A.D. Thallus wrote a history of the Eastern Mediterranean world from the Trojan War to his own time. This work itself has been lost and only fragments of it exist in the citations of others. One such scholar who knew of it and questioned the conclusion, was Julius Africanus (160 A.D. - 240 A.D.) In speaking of Jesus’ crucifixion and the darkness that covered the land during this event, Africanus found a reference in the writings of Thallus that dealt with this cosmic report. Africanus wrote:

“On the whole world there pressed a most fearful darkness; and the rocks were rent by an earthquake, and many places in Judea and other districts were thrown down. This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the Passover, but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun. And it cannot happen at any other time but in the interval between the first day of the new moon and the last of the old, that is, at their junction: how then should an eclipse be supposed to happen when the moon is almost diametrically opposite the sun?”

He goes on to say:

But what has an eclipse in common with an earthquake, the rending rocks, and the resurrection of the dead, and so great a perturbation throughout the universe?”

This passage confirms:

That an account of the crucifixion was known in the Mediterranean region by the middle of the first century A.D.;

There was a widespread darkness and earthquake in the land, implied to have taken place during Jesus’ crucifixion; and

Unbelievers offered rationalist explanations for certain Christian teachings or for supernatural claims not long after their initial proclamation.

Sceptical argument and counter argument:

The sceptical viewpoint and argument against it are the same as the previous point regarding Phlegon’s work. Julius Africanus objected to Thallus’ rationalisation concerning the darkness that fell on the land at the time of the crucifixion because an eclipse could not take place during the time of the full moon, as was the case during the Jewish Passover season, and could also not last for three hours.

In addition to this, the peer reviewed, Israel Exploration Journal, also published an article entitled ‘Earthquakes in Israel and Adjacent Areas: Macroseismic Observations since 100 B.C.E.’, in which they mention earthquakes in Jerusalem in both 30 A.D. and 33 A.D., which affected Judaea and Jerusalem, including damage to the temple.

Emperor Trajan (53 A.D. – 117 A.D.)

In Part 1 of this Blog Post we looked at Pliny’s inquiry regarding the early followers of Jesus This inquiry received a reply from Emperor Trajan, which is published along with his letters. Here’s what was said:

“The method you have pursued, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those denounced to you as Christians is extremely proper. It is not possible to lay down any general rule which can be applied as the fixed standard in all cases of this nature. No search should be made for these people; when they are denounced and found guilty they must be punished; with the restriction, however, that when the party denies himself to be a Christian, and shall give proof that he is not (that is, by adoring our Gods) he shall be pardoned on the ground of repentance, even though he may have formerly incurred suspicion.”

This passage confirms:

Jesus existed (Referred to in the first part of the letter from Pliny);

Christians were being persecuted for their beliefs; and

Rome wanted Christians to reject Christ, and worship their gods;

These conditions imposed by emperor Trajan give us some insight into early official Roman views about Christianity. While persecution was certainly an issue and many Christians died without committing any actual crimes, Trajan’s restrictions on Pliny at least indicate that it was not a wholesale slaughter. Nonetheless, the persecution was real, and many died for their faith. There also appears to be no objection to the validity of this passage.

Emperor Hadrian (76 A.D. – 138 A.D.)

The existence of trials for Christians are also confirmed by another historical reference. Serenius Granianus, proconsul of Asia, wrote to Emperor Hadrian (117–138 A.D.), also in reference to the treatment of believers. Hadrian replied to Minucius Fundanus, the successor as Asian proconsul and issued a statement against those who would accuse Christians falsely or without due process. In the letter, preserved by third century church historian Eusebius, Hadrian writes:

“I do not wish, therefore, that the matter should be passed by without examination, so that these men may neither be harassed, nor opportunity of malicious proceedings be offered to informers. If, therefore, the provincials can clearly evince their charges against the Christians, so as to answer before the tribunal, let them pursue this course only, but not by mere petitions, and mere outcries against the Christians. For it is far more proper, if anyone would bring an accusation, that you should examine it”.

This passage confirms:

That Christians were frequently reported as lawbreakers in Asia and were punished in various ways;

Like Trajan, Hadrian also encouraged a certain amount of temperance, and ordered that Christians not be harassed; and

If Christians were indeed guilty, as indicated by careful examination, punishments could well be in order

Hadrian explains that, if Christians are found guilty, after an examination, they should be judged “according to the heinousness of the crime.” Yet, if the accusers were only slandering the believers, then those who inaccurately made the charges were to be punished. Again, there is no sceptical objection to this passage.

Summary

From the sources covered in part 1 and 2 we can establish a surprisingly detailed picture of Jesus’ life that corroborates with the Gospel records. This is just a brief summary of what we find:

According to these ancient non-Christian sources, Jesus, the brother of James (Josephus), carried out his ministry in Israel (Tacitus, Lucian). Jesus was known as a wise, virtuous and ethical man (Josephus, Mara Bar-Serapion, Pliny), who was reported to have both performed miracles (Celsus) and made prophecies that were later fulfilled (Josephus, Phlegon). As a result, many people amongst the Jews and Gentiles became his followers (Josephus, Talmud). He was referred to as The Messiah or Christ (Josephus), and was even called a King (Mara Bar-Serapion).

The Jewish leaders judged that Jesus was guilty of leading the people astray and should be stoned for committing apostacy (Talmud). Jesus was put to death at the hands of Roman Procurator Pontius Pilate (Tacitus), who crucified him (Josephus, Talmud, Lucian), during the reign of Emperor Tiberius (Tacitus, Phlegon). Darkness covered the land and there was an earthquake (Thallus, Phlegon). Jesus was executed unjustly, and the Jews were judged accordingly (Mara Bar-Serapion).

After his death it is reported that following a brief period his teaching broke out again in Judea (Tacitus, Seutonius, Pliny), and there were rumours of a resurrection (Celsus). It is confirmed that his teachings lived on in his disciples (Mara Bar-Serapion).

Christians were named after their founder, Christ (Tacitus). And this new faith had believers from all classes, ages, localities and of both sexes, forming a cross section of society (Pliny). Finally, Christians were severely persecuted for their beliefs (Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny).